US ELECTIONS
The history of US Elections can be traced back to the late 18th century when the country was still in its early stages of becoming a newly independent nation. British political traditions and the unique circumstances of the American colonies, where elections were held to select representatives for their assemblies, influenced the development of the electoral process. These elections were typically limited to white male property owners, reflecting the British model of limited suffrage, with the structure and rules varying from colony to colony.
After declaring independence from Britain in 1776, the United States faced the challenge of creating a new government. The Articles of Confederation, the first governing document of the U.S., provided a framework for a loose confederation of states but did not establish a strong central government or a standardized electoral process. Its shortcomings led to the Constitutional Convention of 1787, where the U.S. Constitution was drafted.
The Constitution established a federal system with a more robust central authority. Each state was allocated a number of electors based on its representation in Congress, determined by its population. Senators were initially elected by state legislatures, a practice that continued until the 17th Amendment was ratified in 1913, which established direct election of Senators by the people.
The first presidential election was held in 1789, and George Washington won unanimously. Thomas Jefferson succeeded him four years later, and since then, elections have followed a similar process that is still used today, including the counting of the popular vote, introduced in the 1824 election.
Over time, the right to vote expanded significantly. In the 19th Century, property requirements for voting were gradually eliminated, and suffrage was extended to all white men, but women and most non-white people were still excluded.
The 15th Amendment, ratified in 1870, prohibited denying the right to vote based on race. However, discriminatory practices like poll taxes and literacy tests continued to disenfranchise African Americans, especially in the South. The 19th Amendment, ratified in 1920, granted women the right to vote. The Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s led to the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which addressed many discriminatory practices that had prevented African Americans from voting. The 26th Amendment, ratified in 1971, lowered the voting age from 21 to 18 years old.
A central turning point in US election history occurred during the Civil War era. In 1860, Abraham Lincoln became the first Republican president to be elected, sparking tensions between the Northern and Southern states, which eventually led to secession and the Civil War. This war not only tested the strength of American democracy but also resulted in constitutional amendments granting African-American men voting rights. In 1870, women's suffrage movements began demanding equal voting rights for women across all states. Still, it wasn't until nearly five decades later that Congress passed an amendment allowing women to vote nationwide.
Another significant development came with Theodore Roosevelt's presidency at the turn of the 20th century. He introduced progressive reforms such as direct primary elections and campaign finance regulations to curb corruption within political parties. The Great Depression marked another pivotal moment with Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal policies, which focused on three primary goals: relief for the needy, economic recovery, and financial reform.
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After Apple’s "1984" commercial, advertising rates soared to over $500,000 for a 30-second spot, sparking the emergence of the "Ad Bowl," an unofficial marketing competition to produce the most creative and memorable television commercial. With all the attention, more and more advertisers saw an opportunity to use this platform to showcase their creativity and captivate audiences through emotional storytelling and humor. There have been memorable commercials like Budweiser's "Puppy Love," Doritos' "Crash The Superbowl" contest-winning ads featuring user-generated content, and Coca-Cola's heartfelt message of diversity. These ads became viral sensations overnight and had a lasting impact far beyond just product promotion. The games attract viewers from all demographics and backgrounds, allowing companies to reach a diverse audience simultaneously, making the competition fierce among advertisers. In recent years, there has been an increasing trend toward incorporating social issues and causes into Super Bowl ads, with advertisers using their platform to create awareness about important topics such as equality, mental health, and environmental conservation. These ads showcase brands' values and spark meaningful conversations among viewers, which seems to justify an investment starting at around $5 million for a 30-second spot to over $10 million for longer or more elaborate ads.
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The 1824 election was the first to feature multiple major candidates from the same party. The Democratic-Republican Party, which had dominated American politics, fragmented, leading to a contested election between John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, William H. Crawford, and Henry Clay. Victoria Claflin Woodhull was the first woman to declare herself a presidential candidate and announced her run on April 2, 1870. It would be another fifty years before the ratification of the 19th Amendment assured the ballot to American women. In the 1904 election, African American candidate George Edwin Taylor ran for President on the National Negro Liberty Party' ticket, and although he was defeated, his candidacy was a significant step towards broader political participation for African Americans.
Lyndon B. Johnson became the first Vice President to assume the Presidency due to the assassination of a sitting President (John F. Kennedy) in 1963. He was later elected in his own right in the 1964 election. Geraldine Ferraro was the first female vice presidential nominee from a major party, running with Walter Mondale on the Democratic ticket in 1984. Barack Obama’s election in 2008 was a landmark moment. He became the first African American President of the United States, and his victory was seen as a significant milestone in the ongoing struggle for civil rights and racial equality. In 2016, Hillary Clinton became the first woman nominated for President by a major U.S. political party. Her candidacy marked a historic moment in the quest for gender equality in American politics. Donald Trump’s win was notable for his status as a businessman and television personality with no prior political or military experience. His victory marked a significant departure from the traditional backgrounds of most U.S. Presidents.
The First President-elect, George Washington, ran virtually unopposed in 1789 and was re-elected in 1792. Washington was widely respected, and his election was seen more as a consensus choice than a competitive race. Political campaigns began taking shape during the second presidential election in 1796, which featured candidates from opposing political parties. The Federalists, led by John Adams and Alexander Hamilton, and the Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, began to organize around differing visions for the young nation. As citizens of a new and fragile democracy, both candidates had to campaign for votes. Jefferson, who had previously lost to Adams, paid the editor of the Richmond Examiner to print anti-Federalist articles and praise his party. This marked the beginning of campaign slurs, political cartoons, catchy slogans, biased media, and televised debates that have become part of the nature of the elections.
The 1800 election between John Adams and Thomas Jefferson is often considered the first true presidential campaign. The race was highly contentious, with both sides engaging in vigorous campaigning. Supporters of each candidate published pamphlets, editorials, and open letters to sway public opinion. This election also led to the 12th Amendment, which reformed the electoral process by requiring separate votes for President and Vice President. The 1824 election was notable for involving multiple candidates from the same party (Democratic-Republican Party). Andrew Jackson won the most popular electoral votes but not a majority, leading to a decision by the House of Representatives that chose John Quincy Adams. Andrew Jackson's campaign against John Quincy Adams in 1828 is often cited as the first modern presidential campaign. Jackson's supporters organized rallies, distributed campaign materials, and used slogans like 'Jackson and Reform.' The campaign was characterized by personal attacks and appeals to the common voter, marking a shift towards populist campaigning. William Henry Harrison's 1840 campaign, known as the 'Log Cabin Campaign,' was one of the first to use mass marketing techniques. It portrayed him as a man of the people and emphasized his humble origins with slogans like 'Tippecanoe and Tyler Too.' Campaign songs, banners, and rallies became more common during this period. Presidential campaigns during the Civil War and Reconstruction were deeply influenced by issues of slavery, states' rights, and national unity. The 1860 election, which brought Abraham Lincoln to power, was marked by a highly sectionalized vote, reflecting the deep divisions within the country.
In the 1920s, the advent of radio made political discussions accessible to the masses. Congress passed the Communications Act of 1934, which included Section 315, requiring broadcasters to provide equal speaking time to all legally qualified opponents when a political candidate was given airtime, including candidates from minor parties. This rule limited debates to two candidates until 1976, with some exceptions; Congress had the power to suspend this requirement upon the candidates' request.
In 1940, Republican candidate Wendell Willkie invited incumbent President Franklin D. Roosevelt to several radio debates. Still, Roosevelt declined, citing scheduling conflicts and his focus on the presidency as World War II unfolded. By 1948, during the Oregon primary, Republican primary candidates Thomas E. Dewey and Harold Stassen participated in a radio debate with a single question: Should the Communist Party be outlawed in the United States?
The dynamics changed again in 1956 when Democratic contenders Adlai Stevenson and Estes Kefauver debated live on television during the Florida primary. For the general election, representatives of two candidates participated in a live edition of the television program Face the Nation. Eleanor Roosevelt openly supported Stevenson, while Senator Margaret Chase Smith backed Eisenhower.
A significant turning point occurred in 1960 when Congress waived Section 315, allowing the first national broadcast debate between major party nominees: John F. Kennedy and Vice President Richard Nixon. These four televised events became templates and showcased the medium's ability to influence elections. Nearly 70 million Americans tuned in to watch Kennedy and Nixon present their policies, allowing viewers to see potential leaders live for the first time.
In 1975, the Federal Communications Commission ruled that public debates broadcast in full, and not sponsored by the candidates or their supporters, were exempt from the equal time rule. This allowed for broader participation based on debate organizers' selections rather than logistical issues with multiple candidates.
The Modern Era began under these new rules, with the League of Women Voters sponsoring debates from 1976 to 1984. Incumbent President Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter agreed to three debates, while their vice presidential candidates participated in one. The only debate in 1980 between Carter and Ronald Reagan attracted 80 million viewers, the highest during the League era.
In 1987, the two major parties formed a bipartisan non-profit organization, the Commission on Presidential Debates, to oversee the organization and administration of debates. This commission, funded by independent donors rather than directly by parties, marked a new chapter in the evolution of these forums.
In 1992, the commission included a third candidate, Ross Perot, in its discussions following his strong polling performance. However, in 1996, Perot and Dr. John Hagelin sued the commission after being excluded from general election debates due to a rule change. In the case of Perot v. Federal Election Commission (1996), the U.S. District for the District of Columbia Appeals Court ruled that the commission had the right to exclude candidates without a "realistic chance of winning," also affirming that the commission was not a state actor and could not violate First Amendment rights. This established a legal precedent affecting future participation.
Throughout this era, debates were conducted with live audiences. Recent events saw the 2016 Hillary Clinton-Donald Trump debate attract 84 million viewers, while the 2020 debate between Joe Biden and Trump had 73 million. On June 27, 2024, Joe Biden and Donald Trump debated in Atlanta, drawing an audience of 51.3 million viewers. Biden's performance in this crucial debate was widely considered below par, leading to a wave of calls for him to drop out of the race. He withdrew his bid for re-election on July 21.
The second debate, held on September 10 between former President Trump and Kamala Harris, was a turning point. It was widely reported that Harris emerged victorious. When invited by CNN to another debate, Kamala Harris accepted, but a spokesperson for Trump’s campaign reiterated Trump’s statement that there would be "no third debate."
In American history, several presidential elections have had unexpected outcomes due to pre-election polling, political circumstances, or the general mood of the voters. 1948 saw a famous example of an unexpected victory in Harry S. Truman, the incumbent president, who was widely expected to lose to Republican candidate Thomas E. Dewey. Despite the predictions, Truman won thanks to his vigorous campaign and appeal to working-class voters. The 1960 election between Democrat John F. Kennedy and Republican Richard Nixon was incredibly close, with some considering Kennedy's victory unexpected. His calm and charismatic appearance during televised debates is credited with helping him secure the win. In 1976, former Georgia Governor Jimmy Carter's victory was somewhat unexpected, given his outsider status and lack of experience in Washington, on which he capitalized to satiate the public's desire for a fresh start after the turmoil of the Nixon administration. In the 1992 election, incumbent President George H. W. Bush ran for re-election against Democratic challenger Bill Clinton. Clinton's victory was surprising due to Bush's high approval ratings and Ross Perot's strong third-party candidacy. The 2016 presidential election was among the most surprising in modern U.S. history. Donald Trump's victory over seasoned candidate Clinton shocked many political observers. It defied most pre-election predictions, highlighting the deep divides in the American electorate and the power of populist messaging.
The 1980 U.S. presidential election marked a significant shift towards conservative policies and reshaped the political landscape for decades. Ronald Reagan, the Republican candidate and former Governor of California, won a landslide victory over the incumbent Democratic President, Jimmy Carter. This election is often seen as the beginning of the 'Reagan Revolution,' characterized by a resurgence of conservative values, economic deregulation, and a strong stance against the Soviet Union during the Cold War.