SPACE EXPLORATION
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In 1942, Nazi Germany V-2 rocket became the world's first long-range guided ballistic missile, reaching the edge of space at speeds up to 3,500 miles per hour, which laid the groundwork for modern rocketry and space exploration. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite to orbit Earth. It weighed 184 pounds and transmitted radio pulses back to Earth. This marked the beginning of the space age and demonstrated the possibility of sending objects into orbit. In 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin made history as the first human to journey into outer space and orbit Earth aboard Vostok 1. His 108-minute flight proved that humans could survive and function in space, paving the way for future manned missions. In this same year, Cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman in space aboard Vostok 6 in July 1963, marking an important step towards gender equality. In 1966, the Soviet Union's Luna 9 was the first spacecraft to achieve a lunar soft landing and to transmit photographic data from the Moon's surface to Earth, preceding the U.S. Surveyor 1 by about 4 months. In 1969, a space task group recommended a space program to President Richard Nixon to follow the missions to the Moon. The plan included a permanently occupied space station, a reusable shuttle spacecraft, and eventual missions to Mars. However, these ideas received little political or public support because of increasing budget pressures. Only the Space Shuttle won favor and funding and even that decision was controversial. NASA's Apollo 11 mission, commanded by Neil Armstrong and piloted by Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins, achieved the first manned Moon landing. When the last two Apollo missions were canceled, NASA used some of the remaining hardware for an experimental space station. Skylab, the United States' first space station, was launched by NASA in 1973. Over its operational lifetime, it housed three separate crews that conducted various scientific and medical experiments and observations of the Sun and Earth. Skylab was in orbit from 1973 to 1979.
Survival in space over a prolonged period requires many forms of scientific and engineering support to meet the unique challenges of space travel. Apollo 11's spacesuits were custom-made "wearable spacecraft" that cost an estimated $100,000 at the time, equivalent to over $670,000 today. It consisted of 21 layers of synthetics, neoprene rubber, and metalized polyester films, protecting Armstrong from the Moon's extreme temperatures (240°F in sunlight to -280°F in shadow), solar ultraviolet radiation, and micrometeorites. The suit allowed Armstrong to collect lunar samples, deploy experiments, and explore a crater.
Contracted by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1959, Pillsbury was tasked with creating food that would not crumble or spawn bacteria in space. Traditional food safety testing proved inadequate for such a project, so Pillsbury’s scientists applied NASA’s rigorous engineering standards to develop space foods. The application of intense standards led to the creation of the
The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) System, a system for food safety that is still in use today. Whirlpool first served the United States government in 1960. It opened the "Space Kitchen," a lab to develop kitchen appliances that function in zero gravity. The lab ultimately developed methods of preparing and storing food for NASA’s Gemini, Apollo, and Skylab programs.
Food engineering focuses on portability, nutritional density, and preservation. Taste perception is reduced in space by approximately 30%, making the development of palatable space food essential. Early missions relied on unappetizing semi-liquids, but advancements led to dehydrated and cube-shaped foods and innovations like the spoon-bowl pack. Today, astronauts have a wider variety of options, including fresh food and the opportunity to influence their menu, with ongoing research exploring space gardening for self-sufficiency.
In 1975, an American Apollo spacecraft docked with the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft in orbit, marking the first international human spaceflight. This mission symbolized a thaw in Cold War tensions and paved the way for future international cooperation in space exploration. The launch of the Space Shuttle Columbia in 1981 was the beginning of the Space Shuttle program, introducing reusable spacecraft that could carry humans and cargo to and from space. The program enabled a wide range of missions, including satellite deployment, scientific research, and the construction of the ISS. It was directed by President Ronald Reagan, who committed to a permanently crewed space station, encouraged private sector space efforts, and fostered international space partnerships with both U.S. allies and the Soviet Union. Reagan saw outer space as humanity’s final frontier and an opportunity for global leadership. His optimism and belief in American exceptionalism guided a decade of U.S. space activities.
With its inherent risks and challenges, space exploration has witnessed several tragic incidents, resulting in the loss of lives and setbacks for various programs. These tragedies have profoundly impacted space agencies, leading to significant changes in safety protocols and procedures. In 1971, the Salyut mission ended in tragedy due to the sudden depressurization of their Soyuz 11 spacecraft just before reentry into the Earth’s atmosphere.
The 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, caused by the failure of an O-ring seal in its right solid rocket booster, led to a reevaluation of NASA's safety protocols and a renewed commitment to ensuring the safety of future missions.